Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani vs Muhammad Ahmad al-Mahdi

Khalifa bin Hamad oversaw the drafting and promulgation of Qatar's first provisional constitution in 1970, which established the Emir as head of state, created a Council of Ministers, and outlined basic rights. It was later replaced by a permanent constitution in 2004.

Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani seized power from his cousin, Emir Ahmad bin Ali, on February 22, 1972, while Ahmad was in Iran. The coup was bloodless and received backing from the Al Thani family and the Qatari military.

Emir Khalifa bin Hamad nationalized Qatar's oil industry, taking full control of the Qatar Petroleum Company (now QatarEnergy). This move gave the state direct control over oil revenues, funding infrastructure and social programs.

On June 27, 1995, Emir Khalifa bin Hamad was deposed in a bloodless coup by his son, Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani, while Khalifa was abroad in Switzerland. Hamad assumed power and initiated major reforms.

Muhammad Ahmad publicly proclaimed himself the Mahdi, the Islamic redeemer, on June 29, 1881. He called for a jihad against Ottoman-Egyptian rule and British influence, gaining widespread support among Sudanese tribes.

Mahdist forces under Muhammad Ahmad defeated a 10,000-strong Egyptian army commanded by British officer William Hicks at El Obeid. The victory eliminated Egyptian military presence in Kordofan and established Mahdist control over central Sudan.

Mahdist forces besieged Khartoum from March 1884 to January 1885. The city fell on January 26, 1885, resulting in the death of British General Charles Gordon. This victory gave the Mahdi control over Sudan's capital and most of the country.

Following the fall of Khartoum, Muhammad Ahmad established a theocratic state with its capital at Omdurman. He implemented Islamic law, abolished taxes, and organized a centralized administration based on religious principles.