Heshen vs Lin Zexu

Heshen gained the favor of the Qianlong Emperor through flattery and administrative skill, rapidly ascending to high office. He became Grand Secretary and controlled key government appointments and finances.

Heshen systematically embezzled state funds, accepted bribes, and extorted officials, accumulating a fortune estimated at over 1 billion taels of silver. His corruption drained the Qing treasury and weakened the state.

Upon the death of the Qianlong Emperor, the Jiaqing Emperor ordered Heshen's arrest on charges of corruption and abuse of power. Heshen was forced to commit suicide, and his vast wealth was confiscated by the state.

Lin Zexu's destruction of opium and his letter to Queen Victoria demanding an end to the trade led Britain to declare war in 1839. The First Opium War resulted in China's defeat, the Treaty of Nanjing, and the cession of Hong Kong, marking the start of the 'Century of Humiliation'.

As Imperial Commissioner in Guangzhou, Lin Zexu confiscated and destroyed over 20,000 chests of British opium at Humen (Bogue) in June 1839. This direct action against the illegal drug trade was intended to halt the opium crisis but provoked British military retaliation.

Following China's defeat in the Opium War, Lin Zexu was scapegoated by the Qing court and exiled to Xinjiang in 1841. During his exile, he studied local conditions and advocated for frontier defense, but his removal from power weakened the anti-opium faction.

During his exile, Lin Zexu compiled the 'Gazetteer of the Four Continents' (Sizhou Zhi), a collection of translated Western texts on geography, politics, and military technology. This work introduced Chinese scholars to global affairs and influenced later reform movements.