Justinian II vs Qaitbay

Justinian II became emperor at age 16 and ruled until 695. His harsh rule and heavy taxation led to a rebellion that deposed him. He was exiled to Cherson in the Crimea, and his nose was slit (hence 'Rhinotmetos'), a mutilation intended to prevent him from reclaiming the throne.

Justinian II returned from exile with the help of the Bulgar Khan Tervel. He marched on Constantinople, captured the city, and regained the throne. He executed his rivals and ruled with even greater brutality, becoming the first Byzantine emperor to regain power after deposition.

After regaining the throne, Justinian II launched a brutal purge of his enemies. He executed the former emperors Leontius and Tiberius III, along with many senators and officials. His reign of terror alienated the aristocracy and military, leading to widespread opposition.

Justinian II led a campaign against the Bulgars but was decisively defeated at the Battle of Anchialus. The Byzantine army was routed, and Justinian barely escaped. This defeat weakened the empire's position in the Balkans and emboldened the Bulgars.

Justinian II was overthrown in a rebellion led by Philippicus Bardanes. He was captured and executed along with his young son Tiberius, ending the Heraclian dynasty. His death marked the end of a turbulent period of Byzantine history.

Early in his reign, Qaitbay suppressed a revolt by the Emir of Aleppo, who had refused to recognize his authority. The sultan's forces marched to Aleppo, defeated the rebels, and executed the emir, securing his position as sultan.

Qaitbay ordered the construction of a fortress on the site of the ancient Lighthouse of Alexandria, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The citadel was built using stones from the ruined lighthouse and served as a key defensive fortification for the city.

Qaitbay funded a major restoration of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, including repairs to the dome's mosaics and the addition of a marble facing. This project demonstrated Mamluk patronage of Islamic architecture and religious sites.

Qaitbay fought a protracted war against the Ottoman Empire over control of Cilicia and the buffer state of Dulkadir. The conflict ended with a peace treaty that maintained the status quo, with the Mamluks retaining their northern borders.