Leopold II of Belgium vs Victor Emmanuel III

Leopold II established the Congo Free State as his personal colony at the Berlin Conference. He gained international recognition for his claim to the Congo Basin, ruling it as private property rather than a Belgian colony.

Leopold II's regime in the Congo Free State enforced rubber quotas through forced labor, mutilation, and murder. Millions of Congolese died from violence, disease, and starvation between 1885 and 1908.

Leopold II commissioned grand buildings in Brussels, including the Cinquantenaire Arcades, the Royal Museum for Central Africa, and the Mont des Arts. These projects aimed to glorify his reign and colonial achievements.

Edmund Dene Morel and Roger Casement launched a campaign exposing Congo atrocities. The Congo Reform Association pressured governments, leading to international condemnation of Leopold II's rule.

Under international pressure, Leopold II ceded the Congo Free State to Belgium. It became the Belgian Congo, a colony governed by the Belgian state, ending Leopold's personal rule but continuing colonial exploitation.

Victor Emmanuel III approved the Treaty of London, committing Italy to enter World War I on the side of the Allies. Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary, leading to years of costly fighting on the Italian front. The war resulted in over 600,000 Italian deaths.

After the March on Rome, Victor Emmanuel III refused to sign a decree of martial law and instead appointed Benito Mussolini as prime minister. This decision enabled the Fascist takeover of Italy, ending the liberal parliamentary system.

Following the Allied invasion of Sicily and a vote of no confidence by the Grand Council of Fascism, Victor Emmanuel III dismissed and arrested Mussolini. The king appointed Marshal Pietro Badoglio as prime minister and began secret armistice negotiations with the Allies.

Victor Emmanuel III and Badoglio signed an armistice with the Allies, announced on September 8, 1943. The German army responded by occupying northern and central Italy, disarming Italian forces, and triggering the Italian Civil War. The king fled to Brindisi.

Under pressure from the Allies and anti-fascist parties, Victor Emmanuel III formally abdicated in favor of his son Umberto II. The move was an attempt to save the monarchy before a referendum on its future. He went into exile in Egypt.