Alfonso XIII of Spain vs Mohammad Ali Shah

Alfonso XIII was born posthumously, becoming king from birth. His mother Maria Christina served as regent until he came of age. His birth ensured the Bourbon succession after the death of his father Alfonso XII.

Spain lost the Spanish-American War, resulting in the loss of its last major colonies: Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. Although Alfonso XIII was a child at the time, the disaster profoundly shaped his reign and Spanish politics.

Alfonso XIII assumed full royal powers at the age of 16, ending the regency of his mother. He began to actively intervene in politics, which contributed to political instability and the eventual crisis of the Restoration system.

Alfonso XIII supported General Miguel Primo de Rivera's coup, which established a military dictatorship. The king's endorsement of the dictatorship undermined the constitutional system and alienated many political factions, contributing to the monarchy's unpopularity.

After the Republican victory in municipal elections, Alfonso XIII abdicated and went into exile. The Second Spanish Republic was proclaimed, ending the Bourbon monarchy. His departure marked the end of the Restoration era and led to a period of political upheaval.

Mohammad Ali Shah ordered the Russian-led Cossack Brigade to bombard the Iranian parliament (Majlis) in Tehran, killing many constitutionalists and suspending the constitution. This coup d'

After the bombardment of the Majlis, constitutionalist forces from Tabriz and Isfahan marched on Tehran, forcing Mohammad Ali Shah to abdicate in favor of his son Ahmad Shah. He fled to Russia, ending his attempt to restore autocracy and allowing the constitution to be reinstated.

Mohammad Ali Shah, with Russian support, attempted to invade Persia and regain the throne. He landed at Astarabad but was defeated by constitutionalist forces. This failed attempt further weakened the Qajar dynasty and increased Russian influence in northern Persia.